The Justice System and Aboriginal People

The Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission

Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba

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Chapter 1 – The Inquiry and the Issues

1. Dansys Consultants, “Aboriginal People in Manitoba: Population Estimates for 1986 and 1991,” research paper prepared for the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry, Ottawa, November, 1990.

2. Jeremy Hull, An Overview of Registered Indian Conditions in Manitoba (Ottawa: Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, 1987), p. 20.

3. Ibid.

4. Canada, Statistics Canada, Census Canada 1986, A Data Book on Canada’s Aboriginal Population from the 1986 Census of Canada (Ottawa, March 1989), pp. 173–74.

5. Hull, Registered Indian Conditions, p. 48.

6. Ibid., p. 30.

7. Ibid., pp. 77–78, 81.

8. Ibid., p. 97.

9. Ibid., p. 137.

10. Ibid., pp. 68–69.

11. Michael Jackson, “Locking Up Natives in Canada,” University of British Columbia Law Review, 23, 2 (1989): 215–300, at 215.

12. Presentation to Aboriginal Justice Inquiry hearings, 12 April 1989.

13. Don McCaskill, Patterns of Criminality and Correction among Native Offenders in Manitoba: A Longitudinal Analysis (Ottawa: Correctional Service of Canada, 1985), p. 2.

14. Presentation to Aboriginal Justice Inquiry hearings, 25 April 1989.

15. Hull, Registered Indian Conditions, p. 25.

16. Ibid., p. 30.

17. This estimate is based on public estimates for 1990–91 for the Manitoba departments of Justice, Family Services and Natural Resources; 1991–92 estimates for the federal departments of Indian and Northern Affairs, Justice and Solicitor General; and the 1990 current estimates for the City of Winnipeg and the Brandon City Police budget.

1. New English Bible, Genesis 1:28–30.

2. Freda Ahenakew, Cecil King and Catherine I. Littlejohn, “Indigenous Languages in the Delivery of Justice in Manitoba,” research paper prepared for the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry, Winnipeg, March 1990, p. 23.

3. James Dumont, “Justice and Aboriginal People,” research paper prepared for the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry, Sudbury, September 1990.

4. Edward Benton Banai, The Mishomis Book (St. Paul, Minnesota: Indian Country Press, 1979), p. 64, cited in Dumont, “Justice and Aboriginal People,” p. 4.

5. John R. Bryde, Modern Indian Psychology (Vermillion, South Dakota: Institute of Indian Studies, University of South Dakota, 1971), cited in Dumont, “Justice and Aboriginal People,” pp. 6–7.

6. James R. Walker, “The Sun Dance and Other Ceremonies of the Oglala Division of the Teton Dakota,” American Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Papers, 16 (1917): 62, cited in Dumont, “Justice and Aboriginal People,” p. 7.

7. K. Basso, “To Give Up on Words: Silence in Western Apache Culture,” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 26, 2 (1970): 213–30; James S. Chisholm, Navaho Infancy: An Ethnological Study of Child Development (New York: Aldine Publishing Co., 1983), cited in Dumont, “Justice and Aboriginal People,” p. 7.

8. E. Adamson Hoebel, The Cheyennes: Indians of the Great Plains (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960), quoted in Dumont, “Justice and Aboriginal People,” p. 10.

9. Dumont, “Justice and Aboriginal People,” p. 32.

10. Diamond Jenness, Indians of Canada, 7th ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, National Museums of Canada, 1989), p. 125.

11. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism and the Cant of Conquest (New York: W. W. Norton, 1976), pp. 111–12.

12. Ibid., pp. 147–49.

13. Menno Wiebe, Native Culture and Canadian Law: A Cultural Look at Native People and the Canadian Justice System (Kingston: Queen’s Theological College, 1984), p. 8.

14. Bruce G. Trigger, The Children of Aataentsic: A History of the Huron People to 1660 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1976), pp. 59–62.

15. Ibid., p. 60.

16. Jennings, Invasion of America, pp. 147–49.

17. Rupert Ross, “Dancing with a Ghost: Exploring Indian Reality,” unpublished manuscript, Kenora, 1987, pp. 5–6; see also his “Leaving Our White Eyes Behind: The Sentencing of Native Accused,” [1989] 3 C.N.L.R. 1.

18. Clare Brant, “Native Ethics and Rules of Behaviour,” Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 35 (August 1990): 534.

19. Ibid.

20. Ross, “Dancing with a Ghost,” p. 6.

21. Ahenakew, King and Littlejohn, “Indigenous Languages,” p. 22.

22. Brant, “Native Ethics,” pp. 534–35.

23. Ibid., p. 535.

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid.

27. Ibid.

28. Ibid., p. 536.

29. Ibid.

30. Bernard Francis, presentation to the Royal Commission on the Donald Marshall, Jr., Prosecution, 2 November 1987, quoted in Ahenakew, King and Littlejohn, “Indigenous Languages,” p. 27.

31. Brant, “Native Ethics,” p. 537.

32. Ibid., p. 538.

33. Ross, “Dancing with a Ghost,” p. 16.

34. Ibid., p. 5.

35. Francis, 2 November 1987, presentation quoted in Ahenakew, King and Littlejohn, “Indigenous Languages,” p. 30.

36. Ahenakew, King and Littlejohn, “Indigenous Languages,” p. 25.

37. Native Court Interpreter’s Manual (Winnipeg: Department of the Attorney General, 1987), p. i.

38. Ibid.

39. Ahenakew, King and Littlejohn, “Indigenous Languages,” p. 4.

40. Ibid., p. 25.

41. Basil Johnston, Ojibway writer, in correspondence with Cecil King, 10 January 1990, quoted in Ahenakew, King and Littlejohn, “Indigenous Languages,” p. 25.

42. Francis, 2 November 1987 presentation quoted in Ahenakew, King and Littlejohn, “Indigenous Languages,” p. 26.

43. Ahenakew, King and Littlejohn, “Indigenous Languages,” p. 29.

44. Ibid., p. 81.

45. Ibid.

46 Ibid., p. 83.

47. Ibid.,p. 23.

1. James W. S. Walker, “The Indian in Canadian Historical Writing, Canadian Historical Association Historical Papers (1971), pp. 21–51.

2. Simon Roberts, Order and Dispute: An Introduction to Legal Anthropology (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1979), p. 185.

3. Michael Coyle, “Traditional Indian Justice in Ontario: A Role for the Present?” Osgoode Hall Law Journal, 24, 3 (1986): 605–33.

4. E.E. Rich, ed., Cumberland House Journals and Inland Journal, 1775–82 (First Series, 1775–79), (London: Hudson’s Bay Record Society, 1951), p. 36.

5. W. Kaye Lamb, ed., Sixteen Years in the Indian Country: The Journal of Daniel William Harmon, 1800–1816 (Toronto: Macmillan, 1957), p. 87.

6. Quoted in H.M. Chittenden and A.T. Richardson, eds., Life, Letters and Travels of Father Pierre-Jean de Smet, vol. 3, p. 1028; cited in Diamond Jenness, The Indians of Canada, 7th ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977), p. 129; also see H.E. Driver, Indians of North America, 2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), pp. 312–15.

7. Alexander Ross, The Red River Settlement: Its Rise, Progress, and Present State (Minneapolis: Ross and Haines, 1957), pp. 249–50.

8. E. Adamson Hoebel, The Law of Primitive Man: A Study in Comparative Legal Dynamics (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1954), p. 28.

9. Peter R. Grant, “Recognition of Traditional Laws in State Courts and the Formulation of State Legislation,” in Indigenous Law and the State, edited by Bradford W. Morse and Gordon R. Woodman (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Foris Publications, 1988), p. 260.

10. Scott Clark, “Aboriginal Customary Law: Literature Review,” research paper prepared for the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry, 1990, p. 8.

11. Gisday Wa and Delgam Uukw, The Spirit in the Land: The Opening Statement of the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en Hereditary Chiefs in the Supreme Court of British Columbia (Gabriola, British Columbia: Reflections, 1989), p. 8.

12. Robert Gordon and Mervyn Meggitt, “The Customary Law Option,” in their Law and Order in the New Guinea Highlands (Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1985), pp. 202–4.

13. John West, The Substance of a Journal during a Residence at the Red River Colony, British North America in the Years 1820–1823 (Vancouver: Alcuin Society, 1967), p. 140.

14. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, History of the Expedition under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark to the Sources of the Missouri, vol. 2 (Toronto: Morang, n.d.), p. 108.

15. Alexandre-Antonin TachŽ, Sketch of the North-West of America (Montreal: John Lovell, 1870), p. 110.

16. An isolated and unconvincing critic of this conclusion is L.C. Green in Green and O.P. Dickason, The Law of Nations and the New World (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1989). James Crawford, “The Original Status of Aboriginal Peoples in North America: A Critique of L.C. Green and O.P. Dickason, The Law of Nations and the New World (1989),” research paper prepared for the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry (Sydney, Australia, January 1991).

17. This interpretation is presented most clearly in the writings of James Crawford, including his “Aboriginal Self-Government in Canada,” research report for the Committee on Native Justice, Canadian Bar Association (Ottawa: Canadian Bar Association, 1988). The above quotation comes from page 22 of this document. See also Crawford’s The Creation of States in International Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979).

18. Guerin v. R., [1984] 2 S.C.R. 335.

19. Sylvia Van Kirk, “Many Tender Ties”: Women in Fur-Trade Society in Western Canada, 1670–1870 (Winnipeg: Watson and Dwyer, 1980), p. 4.

20. Cited in J. Lagasse, “The Metis in Manitoba,” in The Other Natives: The Metis, vol. 2, edited by A.S. Lussier and D.B. Sealey (Winnipeg: Manitoba Metis Federation Press, 1978), p. 110.

21. Paul C. Thistle, Indian-European Trade Relations in the Lower Saskatchewan River Region to 1840, Manitoba Studies in Native History No. 2 (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1986), pp. 67, 73–74.

22. Ibid., pp. 67, 77.

23. Ibid., p. 86.

24. S.C. 1765, 6 Geo. 3, c. 18.

25. Dale Gibson and Lee Gibson, Substantial Justice: Law and Lawyers in Manitoba, 1670–1970 (Winnipeg: Peguis, 1972), pp. 1–5.

26. See Desmond H. Brown, “Unpredictable and Uncertain: Criminal Law in the Canadian North West before 1886,” Alberta Law Review, 17, 3 (1979): 497–512, for a summary of these issues.

27. Gibson and Gibson, Substantial Justice, p. 27.

28. An Act providing for the organization of the Department of the Secretary of State of Canada, and for the management of Indian and Ordinance Lands, S.C. 1868, c. 42.

29. W.L. Morton, Manitoba: A History (lst ed., 1957; reprint ed., Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967); W.L. Morton, “Introduction” to Alexander Begg’s Red River Journal and Other Papers Relative to the Red River Resistance of 1869–70 (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1956).

30. Manitoba Act, 1870, R.S.C. 1985, App. II, No. 8.

31. The legislative record includes Rupert’s Land Act, 1868, 31–32 Vict., c. 105 (U.K.), reprinted in R.S.C. 1985, App. II, No. 6; Act for the Temporary Government of Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory, S.C. 1869, c. 3; “Order of Her Majesty in Council Admitting Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory into the Union, 23 June 1870,” a sequence of 1868–69 documents contained in E.H. Oliver, The Canadian North-West: Its Early Development and Legislative Records (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1914–15), pp. 939–63; other documents appear in W.L. Morton, ed., Manitoba: The Birth of a Province, vol. 1 (Altona, Manitoba: Manitoba Record Society Publications, 1965). The 1871 British legislation was entitled Act Respecting the Establishment of Provinces in the Dominion of Canada, 1871, 34 & 35 Vict. c. 28 (U.K.).

32. D. Thorburn to R. Pennefather, 13 October 1858, PAC, RG 10, v. 245, part I, cited in John S. Milloy, “The Early Indian Acts: Developmental Strategy and Constitutional Change,” in As Long as the Sun Shines and Water Flows: A Reader in Canadian Native Studies, edited by Ian A.L. Getty and A.S. Lussier (Vancouver: Nakoda Institute and University of British Columbia Press, 1983).

33. S.C. 1869, 32–33 Vict., c. 6, s. 10.

34. S.C. 1876, 39 Vict., c. 18, s. 63.

35. Jean Usher, William Duncan of Metlakatla: A Victorian Missionary in British Columbia (Ottawa: National Museum of Man, 1974), p. 63.

36. Regina Leader, 9 October 1888, cited in Jacqueline Kennedy Gresko, “Qu’Appelle Industrial School: White ‘Rites’ for the Indians of the Old North West,” M.A. thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, 1970, p. 116.

37. George T. Denison, cited in Peter B. Waite, Canada, 1874–1896: Arduous Destiny (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1971), p. 162, and in Sandra Estlin Bingaman, “The Trials of the ‘White Rebels,’ 1885,” Saskatchewan History, 25, 2 (1972): 41–54.

38. Hugh A. Dempsey, Big Bear: The End of Freedom (Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1984), p. 192; Sandra Estlin Bingaman, “The Trials of Poundmaker and Big Bear, 1885,” Saskatchewan History, 28, 3 (1975): 81–94.

39. Joseph F. Dion, My Tribe the Crees (Calgary: Glenbow Museum, 1979), p. 113, cited in Dempsey, Big Bear, pp. 193–94.

40. Dan Kennedy, Recollections of an Assiniboine Chief, edited by James R. Stephens (Toronto and Montreal: McClelland and Stewart, 1972), pp. 54–55, cited in J.R. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989), p. 196.

41. Cited in Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens, p. 196.

42. F. Laurie Barron, “A Summary of Federal Indian Policy in the Canadian West, 1867–1984,” Native Studies Review, 1, 1 (1984): 28–39.

43. K.A. Pettipas, “Severing the Ties That Bind: The Canadian Indian Act and the Repression of Indigenous Religious Systems in the Prairie Region, 1896–1951,” PhD dissertation, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 1988 (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, forthcoming); Douglas Cole and Ira Chaikin, An Iron Hand upon the People: The Law Against the Potlatch on the Northwest Coast (Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1990).

44. Department of Indian Affairs, J.M. to Secretary, 19 September 1908, PAC, RG 10, v. 3825, file 60, 511–2, cited in Pettipas, “Severing the Ties,” p. 268.

45. Edward Ahenakew, Voices of the Plains Cree, edited by Ruth Buck (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1973), pp. 69, 72.

46. Vankoughnet to Macdonald, 14 August 1885, PAC, RG 10, v. 3710, file 19, 550–3, cited in F. Laurie Barron, “The Indian Pass System in the Canadian West, 1882–1935,” Prairie Forum, 13, 1 (1988): 28.

47. Sarah Carter, Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Reserve Farmers and Government Policy (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990).

48. S.C. 1876, 39 Vict., c. 18, s. 70.

49. Canada, Sessional Papers, 14, 1896, Report of the Deputy Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs, cited in Sarah Carter, “Agriculture and Agitation on the Oak River Reserve, 1875–1895,” Manitoba History, 6 (Fall 1983): 5.

50. Stuart Raby, “Indian Land Surrenders in Southern Saskatchewan,” Canadian Geographer, 17, 1 (1973): 36–52.

51. Cited in Tyler, Wright and Daniel Ltd., “The Illegal Surrender of St. Peter’s Reserve,” manuscript report prepared for the Treaty and Aboriginal Rights Research Centre of Manitoba (Winnipeg, 1983), p. 534.

52. S.C. 1916, 6–7 Geo. 5, c. 24.

53. Treaty and Aboriginal Rights Research Program, Treaty Land Entitlement in Manitoba, 1970–1981 (Winnipeg: Treaty and Aboriginal Rights Research Centre, 1982).

54. Peter Douglas Elias, The Dakota of the Canadian Northwest: Lessons for Survival, Manitoba Studies in Native History No. 5 (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1988), p. 146.

55. Cited in John S. Milloy, “A Partnership of Races: Indian and White, Cross-Cultural Relations and Criminal Justice in Manitoba, 1670–l949,” research paper prepared for the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry, Peterborough, June 1990, p. 67.

56. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens, pp. 206–7.

57. Canada, Parliament, Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons on the Indian Act, “Minutes and Proceedings of Evidence,” No. 30, pp. 1563–1600, cited in Milloy, “Partnership of Races,” pp. 81–94.

58. Ibid., p. 1585.

59. A wide sample of the literature on this theme is presented in Jacqueline Peterson and Jennifer S.H. Brown, eds., The New Peoples: Being and Becoming Metis in North America (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1985), and in F. Laurie Barron and James B. Waldram, eds., 1885 and After: Native Society in Transition, proceedings of a conference held at the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, May 1985 (Regina: Canadian Plains Research Centre, University of Regina, 1986). A survey is presented in Jennifer S.H. Brown, “Metis,” Canadian Encyclopedia, 2d ed. (Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers, 1988), pp. 1343–46.

60. Auguste-Henri de Tremaudan, Histoire de la nation metisse dans l’ouest canadien, reprint ed. (St. Boniface: Les Editions du Ble, 1979), published in English as Hold High Your Heads: History of the Metis Nation in Western Canada, translated by E. Maguet (Winnipeg: Pemmican Publications, 1982).

61. de Tremaudan, Hold High Your Heads, p. xvi.

62. Allen Edgar Ronaghan, “The Archibald Administration in Manitoba, 1870–72,” PhD dissertation, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 1987.

63. Archibald to J.A. Macdonald, 9 October 1871, in Journals of the House of Commons of the Dominion of Canada 1874, 8, appx. 6.

64. Jean H. Lagasse, A Study of the Population of Indian Ancestry Living in Manitoba (Winnipeg: Department of Agriculture and Immigration, 1959), pp. 54–57.

65. Lagasse, “The Metis in Manitoba,” p. 78.

66. Ibid., p. 3.

67. S.C. 1916, 7–8 Geo. 5, c. 24; S.C. 1919, 9–10 Geo. 5, c. 71.

68. S.C. 1942, c. 33.

69. An Act to amend the Indian Act, S.C. 1919, 9–10 Geo. 5, c. 56.

70. R.S.C. 1906, c. 81, ss. 21–23.

71. R.S.C. 1906, c. 81, s. 164.

72. P.C. 2122.

73. See James Dempsey, “The Indians and World War One,” Alberta History, 31, 3 (1983): 1–8; RES Policy Research, Indian Veterans and Veterans’ Benefits in New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island (Ottawa: National Indian Veterans Association, 1984); Bruce D. Sealey and Peter Van De Vyvere, Thomas George Prince (Winnipeg: Peguis, 1981); Alastair Sweeney, Government Policy and Saskatchewan Indian Veterans (Saskatchewan Indian Veterans Association, 1979); Indian Act, S.C. 1952, c. 149; Soldier Settlement Act, S.C. 1917, c. 21; Veterans Land Act, S.C. 1952, c. 280; Indian Veterans’ Rights, Report No. 3 (Saskatoon: Native Law Centre, 1979).

74. Canada, Sessional Papers, Annual Reports of the Superintendent of Penitentiaries; figures from 1900–1960 can be extracted from tables published in the annual reports of the Superintendent, latterly Commissioner, of Penitentiaries. After 1960, statistical data concerning correctional facilities is published in various Statistics Canada reports under the rubric of the “85” series. Ethnicity was not used again as a description of prisoners until 1975.

75. M.S. Donnelly, The Government of Manitoba (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1963), p. 72.

76. An Act respecting the Electoral Franchise, S.C. 1885, 47–49 Vict., c. 40, ss. 2 and 11(c).

77. Election Act, S.M. 1886, 49 Vict., c. 29, s. 130(5).

78. Election Act, S.M. 1931, c. 10, s. 16(5); also R.S.M. 1940, c. 57, ss. 15(1)(b) and 16(5); similar Ontario legislation was The Elections Act, R.S.O. 1927, c. 8, s. 18(s); in 1945 the Manitoba legislation The Active Service Election and Representation Act, S.M. 1945 (2nd. Sess.), c. 1, s. 3, extended the right to Indians who had served in the Second World War.

79. An Act to amend The Manitoba Elections Act, S.M. 1952 (1st Sess.), c. 18, ss. 5 and 6.

80. 8–9 Eliz. II, c. 39 repealed R.S.C. 1952, c. 23, the relevant clauses of which were s. 14(2)(e) and 14(4).

81. Patrick Johnston, Native Children and the Child Welfare System (Toronto: James Lorimer, 1983).

82. Calder v. Attorney General of British Columbia, [1973] S.C.R. 313.

83. Canada, House of Commons, Special Committee on Indian Self-Government, Indian Self-Government in Canada (Penner Report), (Ottawa, 1983).

1. “Indians Policing Reserves,” background information for Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development news release 1–9157, “Federal Government Funds Plan to Improve Policing Services for Indian Reserves,” 27 June 1991.

2. Correspondence to Aboriginal Justice Inquiry from Insp. L.R. Chipperfield, Planning Branch, “D” Division, Manitoba, 29 April 1991.

3. The Provincial Court study conducted by the Manitoba Department of Justice in 1986 is one of the most ambitious justice-related data collection projects ever undertaken in Canada and one of the few that compares Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal experiences in the justice system. The study involved a random sample of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal cases in Winnipeg, Thompson, The Pas and nine reserves in northern Manitoba. Our Inquiry engaged Dansys Consultants, a firm that specializes in statistical analysis of the justice system, to conduct an independent review of the data generated by the Provincial Court study. Our figures on the Provincial Courts are based on this analysis. Dansys Consultants, “Manitoba Aboriginal Justice Study,” research paper prepared for the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry, Ottawa, May 1991.

4. Mary Hyde and Carol LaPrairie, “Amerindian Police Crime Prevention,” working paper prepared for the Solicitor General of Canada, Ottawa, 1987, pp. 55–56.

5. Ibid., p. 38.

6. Paul Havemann, Keith Couse, Lori Foster, and Rae Matonovich, Law and Order for Canada’s Indigenous People: A Review of Recent Research Literature Relating to the Operation of the Criminal Justice System and Canada’s Indigenous People (Regina: Prairie Justice Research, 1985), pp. 112–17.

7. K.D. Harries, Crime and the Environment (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1980), pp. 4–5.

8. Emile Durkheim, “The Normal and the Pathological” (1938), and Robert A. Dentler and Kai T. Erikson, “The Functions of Deviance in Groups” (1959), in Theories of Deviance, edited by Stuart H. Traub and Craig B. Little (Itasca, Illinois: F.E. Peacock Publishers, 1975).

9. Alfred Adler, referred to in John Braithwaite, Inequality, Crime and Public Policy (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979).

10. Theodore N. Ferdinand, “The Methods of Delinquency Theory,” Criminology, 25, 4 (1987): 841–62, at 849.

11. Thorsten Sellin, “Culture Conflict and Crime” (1938), in Traub and Little, Theories of Deviance, pp. 49–58.

12. W.I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki, “The Concept of Social Disorganization” (1920), and Robert E. Park, “Social Change and Social Disorganization” (1967), in Traub and Little, Theories of Deviance.

13. Rodney Stark, “Deviant Places: A Theory of the Ecology of Crime,” Criminology, 25, 4 (1987): 893–909.

14. Walter Gover, Michael Hughes and Omer Galle, “Overcrowding in the Home: An Empirical Investigation of Its Possible Pathological Consequences,” American Sociological Review, 44 (1979): 59–82.

15. Edwin H. Sutherland, “The Theory of Differential Association” (1947), in Traub and Little, Theories of Deviance.

16. Daniel Glaser, “Criminality Theories and Behavioural Images” (1956), in Traub and Little, Theories of Deviance.

17. Michael Lynch and W. Byron Groves, A Primer in Radical Criminology, 2d ed. (Albany, New York: Harrow and Heston, 1989).

18. Jeffrey Fagan and Sandra Wexler, “Family Origins of Violent Delinquents,” Criminology, 25, 3 (1987): 643–69.

19. Donald West, Delinquency: Its Roots, Careers, and Prospects (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 28, 37, 117.

20. Tavs Fulmer Anderson, “Persistence of Social and Health Problems in the Welfare State: A Danish Cohort Experience from 1948 to 1979,” Social Science and Medicine, 18, 7 (1984): 555–60.

21. Marvin Wolfgang, Marvin Figlio and Thorsten Sellin, Delinquency in a Birth Cohort (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), pp. 245–49.

22. Elliott Currie, Confronting Crime (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), p. 162, discussing a study by Judith and Peter Blau.

23. Ibid., p. 174.

24. Ibid., p. 178.

25. Hyde and LaPrairie, “Amerindian Police Crime Prevention,” pp. 8–10, 25–27.

26. Canada, Statistics Canada, Census Canada 1986, A Data Book on Canada’s Aboriginal Population from the 1986 Census of Canada (Ottawa, March 1989), p. 191.

27. Winnipeg, Social Planning Council of Winnipeg, Selected Profile of Winnipeg’s Aboriginal Population (Winnipeg, 1989), p. 9.

28. Canada, Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, Highlights of Aboriginal Conditions, 1981–2001, Part III: Economic Conditions (Ottawa, 1989), p. 13.

29. Ibid., p. 184.

30. Jeremy Hull, An Overview of Registered Indian Conditions in Manitoba (Ottawa: Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, 1987), p. 116.

31. Ibid., p. 25.

32. Ibid., p. 30.

33. Ibid., p. 46.

34. Ibid., p. 37.

35. Ibid., pp. 68–69.

36. Indian and Northern Affairs, Highlights of Aboriginal Conditions, Part III, p. 5.

37. Hull, Registered Indian Conditions, p. 48.

38. Ibid., p. 47.

39. Ibid., p. 125.

40. Ibid., pp. 123, 131.

41. Statistics Canada, A Data Book, p. 81.

42. M. Harvey Brenner, Estimating the Social Costs of National Economic Policy, report prepared for the Joint Economic Committee of the U.S. Congress (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976).

43. Michael Rutter, “Protective Factors in Children’s Responses to Stress and Disadvantage,”in Promoting Social Competence and Coping in Children, vol. 3 of Primary Prevention and Cycle Pathology, edited by M.W. Kent and J.E. Rolf (Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1979), pp. 49–74.

44. Lisa Hobbs Birnie, A Rock and a Hard Place: Inside Canada’s Parole Board (Toronto: Macmillan, 1990), p. 205.

45. Among the many sources on this topic is W.S. Tarnopolsky, “Discrimination in Canada: Our History and Our Legacy,” paper delivered to the Canadian Institute of Administration of Justice seminar on discrimination in the law, Kananaskis, Alberta, 12 October 1989.

46. J.E. Hodgetts, Pioneer Public Service, quoted in Kahn-Tineta Miller and George Lerchs, The Historical Development of the Indian Act (Ottawa: Treaties and Historical Research Branch, Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, 1978), p. 191.

47. Andrews v. Law Society of British Columbia, [1989] 2 W.W.R. 289 (S.C.C.), at 308, per Mr. Justice McIntyre.

48. Ibid., at 307.

49. Michael Jackson, “Locking Up Natives in Canada,” University of British Columbia Law Review, 23, 2 (1989): 215–300, at 215.

50. Don McCaskill, Patterns of Criminality and Correction among Native Offenders in Manitoba: A Longitudinal Analysis (Ottawa: Correctional Service of Canada, 1985), p. 2.

51. Canada, Department of the Solicitor General, Report of the Task Force on Aboriginal Peoples in Federal Corrections (Ottawa, 1988), p. 5.

52. Statistics Canada, A Data Book, pp. 173–74.

53. Hull, Registered Indian Conditions, p. 59.

54. Dansys Consultants, “Aboriginal People in Manitoba: Population Estimates for 1986 and 1991,” research paper prepared for the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry, Ottawa, November 1990.

55. Birnie, A Rock and a Hard Place, p. 197.

56. W.K. Greenaway, “Crime and Class: Unequal before the Law,” in Structural Inequality in Canada, edited by John Harp and John R. Hofley (Scarborough: Prentice-Hall, 1980), p. 257; Traub and Little, Theories of Deviance, p. 181.

57. See Curtis T. Griffiths and Simon N. Verdun-Jones, Canadian Criminal Justice (Toronto: Butterworths, 1989), p. 191.

58. Written presentation of Manitoba Department of Justice to the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry, 25 April 1989, Appendix E.

59. Elliott Johnston, Commissioner, Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody, National Report, vol. 1 (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1991), pp. 8–9.

60. Sheilah Martin and Kathleen Mahoney, eds., Equality and Judicial Neutrality (Toronto: Carswell, 1987), p. 4.

61. Rosalie S. Abella, “Limitations on the Right to Equality before the Law,” in The Limitation of Human Rights in Comparative Constitutional Law, edited by Armand de Mestral et al. (Montreal: Editions Yvon Blais, 1986), p. 226.

62. R. v. Big M Drug Mart (1985), 18 D.L.R. (4th) 321, at 362.

63. Abella, “Limitations,” p. 229.

64. Ibid., p. 235.

65. Preliminary Report, p. 99, translation, quoted in Dale Gibson, The Law of the Charter: Equality Rights (Toronto: Carswell, 1990), p. vii.

66. Martin and Mahoney, Equality and Judicial Neutrality, pp. 50–58.

67. Report of the Task Force on Aboriginal Peoples in Federal Corrections, pp. 13–14.

1. Doe d. Sheldon v. Ramsay (1852), 9 U.C.Q.B. 105, at 123.

2. Sikyea v. R., [1964] S.C.R. 642.

3. Calder v. Attorney General of British Columbia, [1973] S.C.R. 313.

4. Guerin v. R., [1984] 2 S.C.R. 335.

5. R. v. Simon, [1985] 2 S.C.R. 387; Nowegijick v. R., [1983] 1 S.C.R. 29.

6. R.S.C. 1985, App. II, No. 1, at 4–5.

7. Re Paulette, [1973] 6 W.W.R. 97 (N.W.T.S.C.) and 115; reversed on other grounds [1976] 2 W.W.R. 193 (N.W.T.C.A.); affirmed on other grounds [1977] 2 S.C.R. 628.

8. Kanatewat v. James Bay Development Corp., [1974] R.P. 38; reversed [1975] (C.A.) 166; leave to appeal dismissed [1975] 1 S.C.R. 48.

9. Hamlet of Baker Lake v. Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, [1980] 1 F.C. 518 (T.D.).

10. U.S. ex rel. Hualpai Indians v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad, 314 U.S. 339 (1941), at 347.

11. Island of Palmas (1928), 2 R.I.A.A. 829; Western Sahara Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports (1975), at 12; Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports (1971), at 16.

12. See, e.g., L.C. Green and O.P. Dickason, The Law of Nations and the New World (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1989).

13. Felix S. Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law (Washinton,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1942; reprint ed., Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972); G. Bennet, Aboriginal Rights in International Law, Occasional Working Paper No. 37 (London: Royal Anthropological Institute, 1978); J. Crawford, The Creation of States in International Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979).

14. Re Southern Rhodesia, [1919] A.C. 211 (P.C.).

15. Re Southern Rhodesia; Hamlet of Baker Lake v. Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, [1980], 1 F.C. 518 (T.D.); Attorney General of Ontario v. Bear Island Foundation, [1989] 2 C.N.L.R. 73 (Ont. C.A.), affirming (1982), 138 D.L.R. (3d) 683 (Ont. H.C.); Calder v. Attorney General of British Columbia, [1973] S.C.R. 313; R. v. Sparrow [1990] 1 S.C.R. 1075; R. v. Sioui, [1990] 1 S.C.R. 1025; Milirrum v. Nabalco Pty. Ltd. (1971), 17 F.L.R. 141 (N.T.S.C.).

16. Delgamuukw et al. v. Attorney General of British Columbia, [1991] 3 W.W.R. 97, at 389 (B.C.S.C.).

17. M.F. Lindley, The Acquisition and Government of Backward Territory in International Law (London: Longman, Green & Co., 1926), pp. 22–23.

18. See R. v. Simon, [1985] 2 S.C.R. 387.

19. Johnson v. M’Intosh, 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823).

20. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969, U.N. Doc. 81, LM., quoted in Maureen Davies, “Aspects of Aboriginal Rights in International Law,” in Aboriginal People and the Law: Indian, Metis, and Inuit Rights in Canada, edited by Bradford W. Morse (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1989), p. 29.

21. Mohegan Indians v. Connecticut, a series of three decisions by the Board of Trade, the precursor to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The first decision was in 1706. The cases can be found in Joseph Henry Smith, Appeals to the Privy Council from the American Plantations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1950), p. 422.

22. St. Catherine’s Milling & Lumber Co. v. R. (1888), 14 A.C. 46 (P.C.), at 54.

23. Order of Her Majesty in Council Admitting Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory into the Union, S.C. 1869, c. 3.

24. See, e.g., Doe d. Sheldon v. Ramsay (1852), 9 U.C.Q.B. 105.

25. See, e.g., Pawis v. R., [1980] 2 F.C. (18 T.D.).

26. R. v. Simon, [1985] 2 S.C.R. 387, at 404.

27. Dreaver v. R. (1935), 5 C.N.L.C. 92.

28. R. v. Johnston (1966), 56 W.W.R. 565.

29. Calder v. Attorney General of British Columbia, [1973] S.C.R. 313; Hamlet of Baker Lake v. Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, [1980] 1 F.C. 518 (T.D.).

30. See, e.g., Sikyea v. R., [1964] S.C.R. 642, and Kruger and Manuel v. R., [1978] 1 S.C.R. 104, respectively.

31. R. v. Laprise, [1978] 6 W.W.R. 85 (Sask. C.A.).

32. R. v. White and Bob (1965), 52 D.L.R. (2d) 481 (S.C.C.); R. v. Sutherland, [1980] 2 S.C.R. 451.

33. R. v. Kootenay (1978), 6 Alta. L.R. (2d) 220 (Prov. Ct.).

34. Myran v. R., [1976] 2 S.C.R. 137.

35. R. v. George, [1966] S.C.R. 267.

36. R. v. Taylor and Williams (1981), 34 O.R. (2d) 360 (C.A.).

37. R. v. Simon, [1985] 2 S.C.R. 387.

38. R. v. Wesley, [1932] 4 D.L.R. 774 (Alta. C.A.); R. v. White and Bob (1965), 52 D.LR. (2d) 481 (S.C.C.); R. v. Taylor and Williams.

39. R. v. Batisse (1978), 19 O.R. (2d) 145 (Dist. Ct.).

40. Nowegijick v. R., [1983] 1 S.C.R. 29.

41. Frank v. R. (1978), 75 D.L.R. (3d) 481, at 484.

42. R. v. Horseman, [1990] 3 C.N.L.R. 95 (S.C.C.).

43. R. v. Horseman.

44. R. v. Eninew; R. v. Bear (1984), 10 D.L.R. (4th) 137 (Sask. C.A.).

45. R. v. Horse, [1985] 1 W.W.R. 1 (Sask C.A.); affirmed on other grounds [1988] 1 S.C.R. 187.

46. See, e.g., Eastmain Band v. Gilpin, [1987] 3 C.N.L.R. 54 (Que. Prov. Ct.).

47. R. v. Sparrow, [1990] 1 S.C.R. 1075.

48. See, e.g., R. v. Eninew; R. v. Bear (1984), 10 D.L.R. (4th) 137 (Sask. C.A.), affirming R. v. Eninew, [1984] 2 C.N.L.R. 122 (Sask. Q.B.); and R. v. Bear, [1983] 3 C.N.L.R. 57 (Q.B.); R. v. Martin (1985), 65 N.B.R. (2d) 21 (Q.B.).

49. R. v. Hare and Debassige, [1985] 3 C.N.L.R. 139 (Ont. C.A.).

50. See, e.g., MacMillan Bloedel v. Mullin; Martin v. The Queen in right of British Columbia, [1985] 3 W.W.R. 577 (B.C.C.A.) leave to appeal to S.C.C. refused [1985] 5 W.W.R. lxiv.

51. Guerin v. R., [1984] 2 S.C.R. 335, at 379.

52. R. v. Sparrow, [1990] 1 S.C.R. 1075, at 1109.

53. See R. v. Sparrow, [1987] 2 W.W.R. 577 (B.C.C.A.); R. v. Agawa, [1988] 3 C.N.L.R. 73; R. v. Denny et al. (1990), 94 N.S.R. (2d) 253 (C.A.), respectively.

54. R. v. Eninew; R. v. Bear (1984), 10 D.L.R. (4th) 137 (Sask. C.A.).

55. R. v. Derriksan, [1976] 6 W.W.R. 480.

56. R. v. Sparrow, [1990] 1 S.C.R. 1075, at 1091.

57. Ibid., at 1093, per C.J.C. Dickson and J. La Forest.

58. Ibid., at 1093, quoting from Brian Slattery, “Understanding Aboriginal Rights,” Canadian Bar Review, 66 (1987): 727, at 782.

59. R. v. Sparrow, [1990] 1 S.C.R. 1075, at 1112.

60. Ibid., at 1105.

61. Ibid., at 1109.

62. Ibid., at 1114.

63. R. v. Joseph, [1990] 4 C.N.L.R. 59 (B.C.S.C.).

64. R. v. Bones, [1990] 4 C.N.L.R. 37 (B.C. Prov. Ct.).

65. See, e.g., R. v. George, [1966] S.C.R. 267.

66. R. v. Flett, [1987] 5 W.W.R. 115 (Prov. Ct.), at 121.

67. R. v. Arcand, [1989] 2 C.N.L.R. 110 (the federal government filed an appeal but subsequently withdrew it).

68. R. v. Weremy, [1943] Ex. C.R. 44.

69. Kanatewat v. James Bay Development Corp., [1974] Que. R.P. 38.

70. (1974–75) 8 C.N.L.R. 414.

71. Information provided by Ken Young, lawyer for the Northern Flood Committee, 21 June 1991.

72. R. v. Catagas (1977), 81 D.L.R. (3d) 396 (Man. C.A.); reversing [1977] 3 W.W.R. 282 (Co. Ct.).

73. R. v. Taylor and Williams (1981), 34 O.R. (2d) 360 (C.A.).

74. Reference re Eskimos, [1939] S.C.R. 104.

75. R. v. Laprise, [1978] 6 W.W.R. 85 (Sask. C.A.); R. v. Budd; R. v. Crane, [1979] 6 W.W.R. 450 (Sask. Q.B.); Attorney General of Canada v. Lavell; Isaac v. Bedard, [1974] S.C.R. 1349.

76. Attorney General of Canada v. Lavell; Isaac v. Bedard.

77. Lovelace v. Canada, [1981] 2 H.R.L.J. 158.

78. Canada, House of Commons, Special Committee on Indian Self-Government, Indian Self-Government in Canada (Penner Report), (Ottawa: Queen’s Printer, 1983), p. 64.

1. Presentation to Aboriginal Justice Inquiry hearings, 25 April 1989, and Appendix D: Sample Schedule of Court Sittings in Manitoba.

2. Manitoba, Department of the Attorney General, Research and Planning Branch, Justice in Manitoba: Key Indicators (Winnipeg, 1988), p. 35.

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid.

5. Ibid., p. 76.

6. Criminal Code, R.S.C. 1985, c. C.-46, subsections 515(10)(a) and 515(10)(b).

7. Criminal Code, R.S.C. 1985, c. C.-46, subsection 522(2).

8. Curtis T. Griffiths and Simon N. Verdun-Jones, Canadian Criminal Justice (Toronto: Butterworths, 1989), p. 195.

9. Canada, Statistics Canada, Census Canada 1986, Aboriginal Peoples Output (Ottawa, 1981), p. 191.

10. Jeremy Hull, An Overview of Registered Indian Conditions in Manitoba (Ottawa: Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, 1987), p. xi.

11. Canada, Law Reform Commission, Study Report: Discovery in Criminal Cases (Ottawa, 1974).

12. Michael D. Paluk, written presentation to the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry, 14 March 1989.

13. Rick Sloan, Legal Aid in Manitoba: An Evaluation Report (Winnipeg: Department of Justice Canada, September 1987), p. 49.

14. Barbara Hendrickson, A Study of the Operation of the Manitoba Provincial Court in Winnipeg and Selected Northern Communities with Reference to the Treatment of Aboriginal Offenders (Winnipeg: Manitoba Department of Justice, 1989), p. 103.

15. R. v. Askov, [1990] 2 S.C.R. 1199, at 1225–26.

16. Attorney General James McCrae, presentation to Aboriginal Justice Inquiry hearings, 25 April 1989.

17. Canada, Department of Justice, Some Statistics on the Preliminary Inquiry in Canada, prepared by David G. Alford, Paul Chumak, Lise Cloutier, David Johnson, and David McKercher (Ottawa, 1984).

18. Ibid., p. 81.

1. See, e.g., Bradford W. Morse, “Native People and Legal Services in Canada,” McGill Law Journal, 22 (1976): 504–40, at 536; Bradford W. Morse, Indian Tribal Courts in the United States: A Model for Canada? (Saskatoon: Native Law Centre, 1980); Rick H. Hemmingson, “Jurisdiction of Future Trial Courts in Canada: Learning from the American Experience,” [1988] 2 C.N.L.R. 1; and Paul Havemann, “The Indigenization of Social Control in Canada,” in Indigenous Law and the State, edited by Bradford W. Morse and Gordon R. Woodman, pp. 71–100 (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Foris Publications, 1988).

2. See, e.g., Paul Williams, “The Covenant Chain,” LL.M. thesis, Osgoode Hall Law School, York University, 1982.

3. Royal Proclamation of 1763, R.S.C. 1985, App. II, No. l.

4. See, e.g., the Northwest Ordinance of 1786 and the Trade and Intercourse Act of 1790 (often referred to as the Nonintercourse Act), 25 U.S.C. s. 177.

5. Jackson ex dem Gilbert v. Wood, 7 Johns. 290 (1810), at 295 (N.Y.S.C.), per Chief Justice Kent.

6. Ibid.

7. Johnson v. M’Intosh, 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823), at 574, per Chief Justice Marshall.

8. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. (5 Pet.) 1 (1831), at 18, per Chief Justice Marshall.

9. Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. (6 Pet.) 515 (1832), at 559–60.

10. Worcester v. Georgia, at 560–61. This decision has been criticized in recent years for interpreting the congressional plenary power too broadly so as to leave Indian sovereignty improperly open to interference. See, e.g., Steven Paul McSloy, “American Indians and the Constitution: An Argument for Nationhood,” American Indian Law Review, 17 (1989): 139.

11. J. Youngblood Henderson and Russel L. Barsh, “Oyate kin haye keyuga u pe, Part II: The Courts and the Indian Tribes,” Harvard Law School Bulletin, 25, 10 (1974).

12. For a more detailed review of these issues, see, e.g., Felix S. Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1942; reprint ed., Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972); Kirke Kickingbird et al., Indian Sovereignty (Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Development of Indian Law, 1977); Indian Tribes as Sovereign Governments (Oakland, California: American Indian Resources Institute Press, 1988); and Charles F. Wilkinson, American Indians, Time, and the Law (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1987).

13. For examples of studies of specific Indian nations, see E. Adamson Hoebel, The Cheyennes: Indians of the Great Plains (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960); Karl N. Llewellyn and E. Adamson Hoebel, The Cheyenne Way: Conflict and Case Law in Primitive Jurisprudence (Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961); Robert H. Lowie, “Property Rights and Coercive Powers of Plains Indian Military Societies,” Journal of Law and Political Science, 1 (1943): 59; William B. Newell, Crime and Justice among the Iroquois Nations (Montreal: Caughnawaga Historical Society, 1965); John A. Noon, Law and Government of the Grand River Iroquois (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1964); John Phillip Reid, A Law of Blood: The Primitive Law of the Cherokee Nation (New York: New York University Press, 1970); Jane Richardson, Law and Status among the Kiowa Indians (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1966); Rennard Strickland, Fire and the Spirits: Cherokee Law from Clan to Court (Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975); and Elias Johnson, Legends, Traditions, and Laws of the Iroquois or Six Nations, and History of the Tuscarora Indians (Lockport, New York: Union Printing and Publishing Co., 1881; reprint ed., New York: AMS Press, 1978).

14. Ex parte Crow Dog, 109 U.S. 556 (1883), at 568–69.

15. Ibid., at 571. For an exhaustive review of the historical background of this case, see Sidney L. Harring, “Crow Dog’s Case: A Chapter in the Legal History of Tribal Sovereignty,” American Indian Law Review, 17 (1989): 191–239.

16. Quoted in J.E. Chamberlin, The Harrowing of Eden: White Attitudes Towards North American Natives (Toronto: Fitzhenry and Whiteside, 1975), p. 217.

17. For a thorough review of this initiative, see William T. Hagan, Indian Police and Judges: Experiments in Acculturation and Control (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1966). A major rationale for their creation was to serve as a “civilizing force.” Even the policeman’s appearance was to reflect this purpose as he was “supposed to give up his long braids, cease painting his face, trade moccasins for boots, and eschew any other outward manifestation of the blanketed Indian” (Hagan, p. 70). See also Robert Young, Historical Backgrounds for Modern Indian Law and Order (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1969), and Indian Law Enforcement History (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1975).

18. The jurisdiction is set out in 25 C.F.R. ss. 11.1 et seq.

19. Act of June 18, 1934, Pub. L. No. 73–383, c. 576, 48 Stat. 984.

20. Act of August 15, 1953, c. 505, 67 Stat. 588, as amended 18 U.S.C. s. 1162 and U.S.C. s. 1360.

21. Ibid.

22. Indian Tribes as Sovereign Governments, pp. 41–43.

23. Native American Tribal Court Profiles (Washington, D.C.: Judicial Services Branch, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1985). These totals do not include the peacemaker courts that function under New York state law or most of the purely “conservation courts” functioning in parts of the United States.

24. Ibid.

25. The Bureau of Indian Affairs figures varied from 91 courts (17 CFR courts, 58 tribal courts and 16 traditional courts) in Indian Reservation Criminal Justice Task Force Analysis, 1974–75 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1975) to 111 courts in Indian Criminal Justice Program Display (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1974). The number had jumped to 140 by 1982, with 24 CFR courts, 13 traditional courts and 103 tribal courts including several intertribal courts. See Native American Tribal Court Profiles (Washington, D.C.: Judicial Services Branch, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1982).

26. 25 U.S.C. ss. 1301–1341 as amended Pub. L. 99–570, Title IV, ss. 4217, 27 October 1986, 100 Stat. 3207–146.

27. 25 U.S.C. ss. 1901–1963.

28. 18 U.S.C. s. 1151.

29. The General Allotment Act of 1887, 25 U.S.C. ss. 331–334, 339, 341–342, 348–349, 354 and 381.

30. See, e.g., Solem v. Barlett, 465 U.S. 463 (1984), and DeCoteau v. District County Court, 420 U.S. 425 (1975).

31. DeCoteau v. District County Court, 420 U.S. 425 (1975); Moe v. Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, 425 U.S. 463 (1976).

32. National Farmers Union Insurance Co. v. Crow Tribe of Indians, 471 U.S. 845 (1985).

33. See also Kennerly v. District Court, 400 U.S. 423 (1971).

34. Washington v. Confederated Tribes of the Colville Indian Reservation, 447 U.S. 134 (1980).

35. Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe, 455 U.S. 130 (1982).

36. Ibid., at 148.

37. Kerr-McGee Corp. v. Navajo Tribe, 105 S. Ct. 1900 (1985).

38. Montana v. Blackfeet Tribe of Indians, 105 S. Ct. 2399 (1985).

39. McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission, 411 U.S. 164 (1973).

40. Montana v. United States, 450 U.S. 544 (1981).

41. Knight v. Shoshone and Arapahoe Indian Tribes, 670 F. (2d) 900 (10th Circ.) (1982).

42. Cardin v. De La Cruz, 671 F. (2d) 363 (9th Circ.) (1982); cert. denied 459 U.S. 967 (1982).

43. Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes v. Namen, 665 F. (2d) 951 (9th Circ.) (1982); cert. denied 459 U.S. 977 (1982).

44. Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe, 435 U.S. 191 (1978). For a discussion of the significance of this case, see John A. Vaskov, “Indians Rights—What’s Left? Oliphant Tribal Courts and Non-Indians,” University of Pittsburgh Law Review, 41 (1979-80): 75–88; Catherine Baker-Stetson, “Decriminalizing Tribal Codes: A Response to Oliphant,” American Indian Law Review, 9 (1981): 51–81; and Russel L. Barsh and James Youngblood Henderson, “The Betrayal: Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe and the Hunting of the Shark,” Minnesota Law Review, 63 (1979): 609–40.

45. Duro v. Reina et al. (U.S.S.C., unreported, 29 May 1990) reversing 821 F. (2d) 1358 (9th Circ.) (1987) and 851 F. (2d) 1136 (9th Circ.) (1988). This result agrees with Greywater et al. v. Joshua et al., 846 F. (2d) 486 (8th Circ.) (1988).

46. 18 U.S.C. s. 1152 (also referred to as the Indian Country Crimes Act, the Interracial Crime Provision and the Federal Enclave Statute).

47. 18 U.S.C.A. s. 13.

48. Ex parte Crow Dog, 109 U.S. 556 (1883), at 568–69.

49. Title WE of the Indian Civil Rights Act is codified at 25 U.S.C.A. ss. 1301–1303.

50. Ibid., s. 1301(1).

51. Ibid., s. 1301(3).

52. Ibid., s. 1301(2).

53. Pub. L. 99–570, Title IV, s. 4217, 27 October 1986, 100 Stat. 3207–146.

54. Indian Civil Rights Act, s. 1303.

55. Dodge v. Nakai, 298 F. Supp. 26 (D. Ariz.) (1969).

56. For further information on this body of case law, see “Note: Implication of Civil Remedies under the Indian Civil Rights Act,” Michigan Law Review, 75 (1970): 210–35.

57. This case has sparked a considerable level of commentary within the legal literature as well as among Indian people. For further analysis of the judgment and its implications, see Michael N. Deegan, “Closing the Door to Federal Court,” Land and Water Law Review, 14 (1979): 625–34. Gregory Schultz, “The Federal Due Process and Equal Protection Rights of Non-Indian Civil Litigants in Tribal Courts after Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez,” Denver University Law Review, 62 (1985): 761–87; and Richard B. Collins, “Implied Limitations on the Jurisdiction of Indian Tribes,” Washington Law Review, 54 (1979): 479–529.

58. Indian Civil Rights Act, s. 1302(6).

59. Ibid.

60. Native American Tribal Court Profiles, 1985, at 144.

61. Ibid., at 139.

62. Ibid., at 62.

63. Ibid., at 108.

64. Ibid., at 34.

65. David E. Wilkins, Dine Bibeehaz’acnii—A Handbook of Navajo Government (Tsaile, Arizona: Navajo Community College Press, 1987), p. xv.

66. See Native American Tribal Court Profiles, 1985, at 144, regarding the Jamestown Klallam Tribe in Sequim, Washington.

67. Ibid.

68. David Getches, ed., Indian Courts and the Future (Washington, D.C.: National American Indian Court Judges Association, 1978).

69. For further information on this matter, see Frank Pommersheim, “The Contextual Legitimacy of Adjudication in Tribal Courts and the Role of the Tribal Bar as an Interpretive Community: An Essay,” New Mexico Law Review, 18 (1988): 49.

70. See James W. Zion, “The Navajo Peacemaker Court: Deference to the Old and Accommodation to the New,” American Indian Law Review, 11 (1984–85): 89–109.

71. See “Developments in the Law—Race and the Criminal Process,” Harvard Law Review, 101 (1988): 1472–1641.

72. See, e.g., K. Bliss Adams, “Order in the Courts: Resolution of Tribal/State Criminal Jurisdictional Disputes,” Tulsa Law Journal, 24 (1988): 89; Gordon K. Wright, “Recognition of Tribal Decisions in the State Courts,” Stanford Law Review, 37 (1984–85): 1397–1424; and William V. Vetter, “Of Tribal Courts and ‘Territories’: Is Full Faith and Credit Required?” California and Western Law Review, 23 (1987): 219–72.

73. See Zion, “Navajo Peacemaker Court,” p. 89.

74. Moana Jackson, The Maori and the Criminal Justice System: A New Perspective: He Whaipaanga Hou, Part 2 (Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Justice, 1988).

75. Australian Law Reform Commission, The Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Laws, Report No. 31, 2 vols. (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1986).

76. Ibid.

77. For a rare study of traditional Aboriginal justice in operation at the community level in Australia, see Nancy M. Williams, Two Laws: Managing Disputes in a Contemporary Aboriginal Community (Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, 1987).

78. For further information on this general subject, see Kayleen M. Hazlehurst, ed., Justice Programs for Aboriginal and Other Indigenous Communities (Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 1985), for an excellent collection of essays, including Annie Hoddinot, “Aboriginal Justices of the Peace and Public Law,” p. 171, and H.C. Coombs, “The Yirrkala Proposals for the Control of Law and Order,” p. 201; Bruce Swanton, ed., Aborigines and Criminal Justice (Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 1984); Peter K. Hennessy, Aboriginal Customary Law and Local Justice Mechanisms: Principles, Options and Proposals, Research Paper No. 11/12 (Canberra: Australian Law Reform Commission, 1984); and Kayleen M. Hazlehurst, ed., Ivory Scales: Black Australia and the Law (Kensington, N.S.W.: New South Wales University Press, 1987).

79. An Act to amend “The Indian Act, 1880,” S.C. 1881, c. 17, s. 12.

80. An Act to further amend “The Indian Act, 1880,” S.C. 1882, c. 30, s. 3.

81. An Act to further amend “The Indian Act, 1880,” S.C. 1884, c. 27, ss. 22 and 23.

82. Ibid., s. 23.

83. Ibid.

84. Indian Act, R.S.C. 1886, c. 43, s. 177.

85. R.S.C. 1886, c. 157.

86. An Act to further amend “The Indian Act, Chapter Forty-three of the Revised Statutes,” S.C. 1890, c. 29, s. 9.

87. Criminal Code, 1892, S.C. 1892, c. 29.

88. An Act to further amend “The Indian Act,” S.C. 1894, c. 32, s. 8.

89. Criminal Code, 1892, s. 190.

90. Ibid., s. 98.

91. Ibid.

92. Indian Act, S.C. 1951, c. 29, s. 105.

93. Ibid., s. 106.

94. For a review of this jurisprudence and the subject generally, see Bradford W. Morse, “A Unique Court: S. 107 Indian Act Justices of the Peace,” Canadian Legal Aid Bulletin, 5, 2–3 (1982): 139–43.

95. Ibid., at 143–44.

96. See, e.g., R. v. Jimmy, [1987] 5 W.W.R. 755 (B.C.C.A.); and R. v. Sacobie (1987), 182 A.P.R. 430 (N.B.C.A.).

97. It is possible, of course, for a by-law or regulation to limit its application to certain classes of people, such as band members only. For an example of a limitation to Indian and non-Indian residents of a reserve, see Indian Health Regulations, C.R.C. 1987, c. 955, s. 3.

98. “Natives enjoy taste of tribal justice,” Toronto Star, 8 July 1990.

99. Presentation to Aboriginal Justice Inquiry hearings by the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs, 22 November 1989.

100. Native American Tribal Court Profiles, 1985.

101. Bradford Morse and Linda Lock, Native Offenders’ Perceptions of the Criminal Justice System (Ottawa: Policy, Programs and Research Branch, Department of Justice, 1988), p. 22.

102. At the time of writing, this bill was not passed into law.

103. Bryan A. Keon-Cohen, “Native Justice in Australia, Canada, and the U.S.A.: A Comparative Analysis,” Canadian Legal Aid Bulletin, 5, 1 (1982): 187-258, at 189; an earlier version of this article also appeared in Monash Law Review, 7 (1981): 250.

104. Canada, House of Commons, Special Committee on Indian Self-Government, Indian Self-Government in Canada (Penner Report), (Ottawa: Queen’s Printer, 1983). At least one Canadian judge has recognized a right of self-government in reference to the Cree of James Bay in Eastmain Band v. Gilpin, [1987] 3 C.N.L.R. 54 (Que. Prov. Ct.).

105. For further information on this point, see, e.g., Bradford W. Morse and Gordon Woodman, eds. Indigenous Law and the State (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Foris Publications, 1988); M.B. Hooker, Legal Pluralism: An Introduction to Colonial and Neo-Colonial Laws (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975); and Australian Law Reform Commission, The Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Laws.

106. Bradford W. Morse, “Indian and Inuit Family Law and the Canadian Legal System,” American Indian Law Review, 8 (1980): 199–257.

107. James Zion, “Searching for Indian Common Law,” in Morse and Woodman, Indigenous Law, p. 121, and “Harmony among the People: Torts and Indian Courts,” Montana Law Review, 45 (1984): 265–79.

108. See, e.g., Morse, “Indian and Inuit,” and Michael Coyle, “Traditional Indian Justice in Ontario: A Role for the Present?” Osgoode Hall Law Journal, 24 (1986): 605–33.

109. In this situation the courts have held the land to be part of the reserve and exempt from provincial and municipal land-related legislation. See, e.g., Corporation of Surrey et al. v. Peace Arch Enterprises (1970), 74 W.W.R. 380 (B.C.C.A.), which has been cited with approval by the Supreme Court of Canada on several occasions.

110. There are many such enclaves in reserves across the country that were created as a result of enfranchisement of band members; of dedication as church or government lands; because they were once railway lines, public roads or right-of-ways that have since been closed; or because they were lands expropriated by the Crown in right of Canada, the provincial government or a public authority with the power to expropriate (see, e.g., s. 35 of the current Indian Act).

111. See, e.g, Guerin v. R., [1984] 2 S.C.R. 335; and R. v. Sparrow, [1990] 1 S.C.R. 1075.

112. Ibid.

1. Report of the Provincial Criminal Court Judges’ Special Committee on Criminal Justice in Ontario (Vanek Report), 1987, pp. 30–31, in Toward a Unified Criminal Court, Law Reform Commission of Canada (Ottawa, 1989), p. 12.

2. American Bar Association Standards Relating to Trial Courts, approved by the American Bar Association House of Delegates, August 1984.

3. Mills v. The Queen,[1986] 1 S.C.R. 938–39.

4. Manitoba, Department of the Attorney General, Annual Report of the Manitoba Department of the Attorney General, 1988–89 (Winnipeg, 1989), Tables 9, 13, 14, 15 on pp. 67–69. Federal information provided by telephone by Audrey MacDonnell of the Correctional Services of Canada, April 1991.

5. Canada, Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Adult Correctional Services in Canada: 1988–89 (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1989), p. 58.

6. Ibid., p. 68.

7. Rick Sloan, Legal Aid in Manitoba: A Evaluation Report (Winnipeg: Department of Justice Canada, September 1987), p. 191.

1. Canada, Law Reform Commission, Report on the Jury, (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1982), p. 5.

2. An Act to Amend the Jury Act, S.N.W.T. 1986 (1), c. 7.

3. In the Northwest Territories An Ordinance to Recognize and Provide for the Use of the Aboriginal Languages and to Establish the Official Languages of the Northwest Territories, O.N.W.T. 1984 (2), c. 2, s. 5, recognizes a number of Aboriginal languages as official languages of the NWT. The federal Official Languages Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. O-3, s. 2, of course, makes French and English the official languages of Canada. The territorial law supplements the federal law.

1. Lord Hailsham, Halsbury’s Laws of England, 4th ed. (London: Butterworths, 1976), p. 288.

2. Curtis T. Griffiths and Simon N. Verdun-Jones, Canadian Criminal Justice (Toronto: Butterworths, 1989).

3. R.G. Hann et al., Sentencing Practices and Trends in Canada: A Summary of Statistical Information (Ottawa: Department of Justice Canada, 1983).

4. Canada, Correctional Service of Canada, Basic Facts about Corrections in Canada (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1986), pp. 9–10.

5. Ibid.

6. Canada, Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Adult Correctional Services in Canada, 1988–89 (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1989), p. 59.

7. Ibid., p. 67.

8. Ibid., p. 66.

9. Canada, Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Adult Correctional Services in Canada, 1987–88 (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1988) pp. 63 and 96.

10. John H. Hylton, “Locking Up Indians in Saskatchewan: Some Recent Findings,” Canadian Ethnic Studies, 13, 3 (1981): 145.

11. R.M. Martinson, “What Works? Questions and Answers about Prison Reform,” The Public Interest, 35 (1974): 22–54.

12. Griffiths and Verdun-Jones, Criminal Justice, p. 401.

13. Canada, Parliamentary Sub-Committee on the Penitentiary System in Canada (Mark MacGuigan, Chair), Report to Parliament by the Sub-Committee on the Penitentiary System in Canada (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1977), p. 35.

14. Canada, Canadian Sentencing Commission, Sentencing Reform: A Canadian Approach (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1987).

15. G.S. Bridges and J.A. Stone, “Effects of Criminal Punishment on Perceived Threat of Punishment: Toward an Understanding of Specific Deterrence,” Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency, 23 (1986): 207–39.

16. L.H. Bowker, Corrections—The Science and the Art (New York: Macmillan, 1982), p. 155.

17. Canada, Correctional Services of Canada, Regional Office in Saskatoon, Annual Report of the Manitoba Department of the Attorney General, 1988–89 (Winnipeg, 1989), pp. 58–68.

18. Canadian Sentencing Commission, Sentencing Reform.

19. Anthony M. Doob, “Community Sanctions and Imprisonment: Hoping for a Miracle But Not Bothering to Even Pray for It,” Canadian Journal of Criminology, 32, 3 (July 1990): 415–28.

20. Canadian Sentencing Commission, Sentencing Reform, p. xxiv.

21. R. v. Naqitarvik (1986), 26 C.C.C. (3d) 193 (N.W.T.C.A.).

22. Ibid., at 205.

23. Ibid., at 200.

24. Ibid.

25. Carol LaPrairie, “The Role of Sentencing in the Over-representation of Aboriginal People in Correctional Institutions,” Canadian Journal of Criminology, 32, 3 (July 1990): 429–40.

26. Canadian Sentencing Commission, Sentencing Reform, p. xxiv.

27. Ibid., p. 154.

28. R.G. Moyles, British Law and Arctic Men (Saskatoon: Western Producer Prairie Books, 1979), p. 38.

29. R. v. Fireman, [1971] 3 O.R. 380 (C.A.).

30. In B.A. Grossman, ed., New Directions in Sentencing (Toronto: Butterworths, 1980), p. 305.

31. P. Nadin-Davis, Sentencing in Canada (Ottawa: Carswell, 1982), p. 125.

32. Jean Barman, Yvonne Hebert and Don McCaskill, eds., Indian Education in Canada, Vol. 2: The Challenge (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1986), p. 156.

33. Canada, Department of Justice, Fact Book on Community Service Order Programs in Canada (Ottawa: 1986), p. 2.

34. Information in this paragraph is based on a memorandum to the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry from Ron Robinson, Coordinator of Information Systems, Corrections, Winnipeg, 19 March 1991.

35. Barbara Hendrickson, A Study of the Operation of the Manitoba Provincial Court in Winnipeg and Selected Northern Communities with Reference to the Treatment of Aboriginal Offenders (Winnipeg: Manitoba Department of Justice, 1989).

36. J.W. Ekstedt and M.A. Jackson, A Profile of Canadian Alternative Sentencing Programmes: A National Review of Policy Issues (Burnaby, B.C.: School of Criminology, Simon Fraser University, 1986); J. Bonta et al., “Restitution in Correctional Halfway Houses: Victim Satisfaction, Attitudes and Recidivism,” Canadian Journal of Criminology, 25 (1983): 277–93.

37. R.E. Kimball, “In the Matter of Judicial Discretion and the Imposition of Default Orders,” Criminal Law Quarterly, 32 (September 1990): 467–77.

38. Statistics received from telephone conversation with the Saskatchewan Department of Justice, 21 July 1991.

1. Indigenous Women’s Collective, “Aboriginal Women’s Perspective of the Justice System in Manitoba,” research paper prepared for the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry, Winnipeg, June 1990, pp. 48–49.

2. See, e.g., S.E. Doeren and M.J. Hageman, Community Corrections (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing, 1982).

3. Canada, Department of the Solicitor General, Report of the Task Force on Aboriginal Peoples in Federal Corrections (Ottawa, 1988), pp. 23–24.

4. Curtis T. Griffiths and Simon N. Verdun-Jones, Canadian Criminal Justice (Toronto: Butterworths, 1989).

5. Canada, Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Adult Correctional Services in Canada: 1988–1989 (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1989), p. 54.

6. Ibid., p. 55.

7. “Chaplains Contribute to Total Well-Being,” Corrections Community (Newsletter of the Corrections Branch of the Department of Justice), 7, 1 (December 1990–February 1991).

8. Brown and Hunter v. R. (29 November 1990, unreported), p. 5.

9. Canada, Correctional Investigator, Annual Report of the Correctional Investigator 1988–1989 (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1990), p. 27.

1. Canada, Department of the Solicitor General, Report of the Task Force on Aboriginal Peoples in Federal Corrections (Ottawa, 1988), p. 5.

2. See, e.g., D.P. Cole and A. Manson, Release from Imprisonment: The Law of Sentencing, Parole and Judicial Review (Toronto: Carswell, 1990); L. Newby, Native Peoples of Canada and the Federal Corrections System: Development of a National Policy—A Preliminary Issues Report (Ottawa: Correctional Services of Canada, 1981); Brian D. MacLean and R.S. Ratner, “An Historical Analysis of Bills C-67 and C-68: Implications for the Native Offender,” Native Studies Review, 3 (1987): 31–58.

3. Canada, Royal Commission to Investigate the Penal System of Canada, Report (Archambault Report), (Ottawa: King’s Printer, 1938).

4. Canada, Committee Appointed to Enquire into the Principles and Procedures Followed in the Remission Service of the Department of Justice, Report (Fauteux Report), (Ottawa: Queen’s Printer, 1956).

5. Canada, Canadian Committee on Corrections, Toward Unity: Criminal Justice and Corrections (Ouimet Report), (Ottawa: Queen’s Printer, 1969), pp. 348–51.

6. MacLean and Ratner, “Historical Analysis,” p. 43.

7. Canada, National Parole Board, Mission Statement (Ottawa: Department of the Solicitor General, 1987), p. 1.

8. Parole Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. P-2, s. 8(1).

9. Canada, National Parole Board, A Guide to the Parole Act and Regulations, revised and updated edition of the National Parole Board Handbook for Judges and Crown Attorneys (Ottawa, 1988), pp. 11–15.

10. Canada, Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Adult Correctional Services in Canada: 1988–89 (Ottawa, 1989), p. 132.

11. Lisa Hobbs Birnie, A Rock and a Hard Place: Inside Canada’s Parole Board (Toronto: Macmillan, 1990) p. 197.

12. Ibid., p. 196.

13. Ibid., p. 197.

14. Ibid.

15. Canada, National Parole Board, Briefing Book for Members of the Standing Committee on Justice and Solicitor General, vol.1 (Ottawa,1987), p.18.

16. Canada, National Parole Board, Pre- and Post-Release Decision Policies, interim ed. (Ottawa, December 1988), p.13.

17. Canada, Department of the Solicitor General, Report of the Task Force on the Release of Inmates (Hugesson Report), (Ottawa, 1972).

18. Canada, Department of the Solicitor General, Solicitor General’s Study of Conditional Release: Report of the Working Group (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1981).

19. Don McCaskill, Studies of Needs and Resources Related to Offenders of Native Origin in Manitoba (Ottawa: Department of the Solicitor General, 1971).

20. Gail Michalis and William T. Badcock, Native People and Canada’s Justice System (Ottawa: Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, 1979).

21. Carolyn Canfield and Linda Drinnan, Comparative Statistics on Native and Non-Native Inmates—A Five Year History (Ottawa: Correctional Service of Canada, 1981).

22. Report of the Task Force on Aboriginal People in Federal Corrections.

1. Indigenous Women’s Collective, “Aboriginal Women’s Perspective of the Justice System in Manitoba,” research paper prepared for the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry, Winnipeg, June, 1990, pp. 18–22.

2. Paula Gunn Allen, Sacred Hoop: Restoring the Feminine to Native American Tradition (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986), p. 45.

3. Children’s Hospital Child Protection Centre, A New Justice for Indian Children (Final Report of the Child Advocacy Project, prepared by S. Longstaffe and B. Hamilton), (Winnipeg: Department of the Solicitor General of Canada, 1987), p. 8.

4. Carol LaPrairie, “Native Women and Crime in Canada: A Theoretical Model,” in Too Few to Count: Canadian Women in Conflict with the Law, edited by Ellen Adelberg and Claudia Currie (Vancouver: Press Gang Publishers, 1987), p. 107.

5. Fran Sugar and Lana Fox, Survey of Federally Sentenced Aboriginal Women in the Community (Ottawa: Native Women’s Association of Canada, 1990), p. 18.

6. Kathleen Jamieson, Indian Women and the Law in Canada: Citizens Minus, Canadian Action Committee on the Status of Women (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1978).

7. Emma LaRocque, written presentation to Aboriginal Justice Inquiry hearings, 5 February 1990.

8. Allen, Sacred Hoop, pp. 192–93.

9. P.M. White, Native Women: A Statistical Overview (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1985), p. 15.

10. Jeremy Hull, An Overview of Registered Indian Conditions in Manitoba (Ottawa: Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, 1987), p. 98.

11. Janet Spence Fontaine, “Native Perspective on Rape,” presentation to the Northern Conference on Sexual Assault, Thompson, Manitoba, 23 October 1987, p. 3.

12. LaRocque, 5 February 1990 presentation.

13. Thompson Crisis Centre, presentation to Aboriginal Justice Inquiry hearings, Thompson, Manitoba, 21 September 1988.

14. Ontario Native Women’s Association, Breaking Free: A Proposal for Change to Aboriginal Family Violence (Thunder Bay, December 1989), p. 19.

15. Thompson Crisis Centre, 21 September 1988 presentation.

16. Mona Brown et al., Gender Equality in the Courts—Criminal Law: A Study by the Manitoba Association of Women and the Law (Ottawa: National Association of Women and the Law, March 1991), pp. 2–4.

17. Ibid., pp. 3–11.

18. Thompson Crisis Centre, 21 September 1988 presentation.

19. “Conjugal Violence Against Women,” Juristat (Statistics Canada), 10, 7 (May 1990): 1–2, at 2.

20. Thompson Crisis Centre, 21 September 1988 presentation.

21. Children’s Hospital Child Protection Centre, New Justice, p. 1.

22. Ibid., p. 27.

23. Ibid., p. 23.

24. Ibid., p. 27.

25. Ibid., pp. 25–26.

26. Elizabeth Fry Society, presentation to Aboriginal Justice Inquiry hearings, Winnipeg, 16 November 1988.

27. John H. Hylton, “Locking Up Indians in Saskatchewan: Some Recent Findings,” Canadian Ethnic Studies, 13, 3 (1981): 144–51, at 145.

28. Sugar and Fox, Federally Sentenced Aboriginal Women, pp. 6–7.

29. Ibid., p. 8.

30. LaPrairie, “Native Women,” p. 109.

31. Ibid., p. 104.

32. Gayle Campbell, “Women and Crime,” Juristat (Statistics Canada), 10, 20 (December 1990): 1–9, at 4.

33. Presentation to Aboriginal Justice Inquiry hearings, Winnipeg, 22 November 1989.

34. Canada, House of Commons, Standing Committee on Justice and Solicitor General (David Daubney, Chair), Taking Responsibility (Report on Its Review of Sentencing, Conditional Release and Related Aspects of Corrections), (Ottawa: Queen’s Printer, l988), p. 237.

35. Allison Morris, Women, Crime and Criminal Justice (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1987).

36. Canada, Correctional Service of Canada, Creating Choices, The Report of the Task Force on Federally Sentenced Women (Ottawa, 1990).

37. Ibid., p. 110.

38. Ikwewak Justice Committee, presentation to the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry hearings, Winnipeg, 14 September 1988.

1. Nicholas Bala, “The History of Child Protection in Canada,” in Canadian Child Welfare Law: Children, Families and the State, edited by Nicholas Bala, Joseph P. Hornick and Robin Vogl (Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing, 1991), p. 2.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid., pp. 2–3.

4. Jean Barman, Yvonne Hebert and Don McCaskill, eds., Indian Education in Canada, Vol. I: The Legacy (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1986), p. 2.

5. Ibid.

6. Bruce G. Trigger, The Children of Aataentsic: A History of the Huron People to 1660 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1976), p. 378.

7. Ibid., p. 47.

8. Barman, Hebert and McCaskill, Indian Education in Canada, p. 3.

9. E.P. Patterson, The Canadian Indian: A History since 1500 (Don Mills: Collier-Macmillan, 1972), p. 72.

10. Kahn-Tineta Miller and George Lerchs, The Historical Development of the Indian Act (Ottawa: Treaties and Historical Research Branch, Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, 1978), p. 114.

11. Canada, Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Annual Report (Ottawa, 1976), p. 6.

12. N.F. Davin, “Report on Industrial Schools for Indians and Halfbreeds” (Ottawa: Public Archives, 14 March 1879), PAC RG 10, Vol. 6001, File 1-1-1, Part 1.

13. Ibid.

14. Cited in J.R. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989), pp. 206–7.

15. Celia Haig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School (Vancouver: Tillacum Library, 1988), p. 67.

16. Randy Fred, “Introduction,” in Ibid., pp. 1–2.

17. Haig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal, p. 28.

18. Patrick Johnston, Native Children and the Child Welfare System (Toronto: Lorimer, 1983), p. 2.

19. Ibid., pp. 2–3.

20. Canadian Welfare Council and Canadian Association of Social Workers, Joint Submission to the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and the House of Commons Appointed to Examine and Consider the Indian Act (Ottawa: Canadian Welfare Council, 1947), p. 3.

21. Ibid., p. 6.

22. Indian Act, R.S.C. 1970, c. 1–6, s. 88.

23. H.B. Hawthorn, ed., A Survey of the Contemporary Indians of Canada: A Report on Economic, Political, Educational Needs and Policies, vols. 1 and 2 (Ottawa: Canada Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, 1966), p. 327.

24. Johnston, Native Children, p. 23.

25. Ibid., p. 57.

26. Ibid., p. 24.

27. Ibid., p. 62.

28. Manitoba, Department of Health and Social Development, Report of the Indian Child Welfare Sub-Committee, Manitoba, to the Tripartite Committee (Winnipeg, 1980), p. 1.

29. Director of Child Welfare for Manitoba v. B, [1979] 6 W.W.R. 229 (Man. Prov. Ct.), at 237.

30. Department of Health and Social Development, Indian Child Welfare, pp. 11–13.

31. Ibid.

32. Ibid., pp. 15–29.

33. Ibid., p. 13.

34. Johnston, Native Children, p. 111.

35. Ibid., p. 23.

36. Edwin C. Kimelman et al., No Quiet Place, Review Committee on Indian and Metis Adoptions and Placements (Winnipeg: Manitoba Department of Community Services, 1985), pp. 272–73.

37. Ibid., p. 196.

38. Ibid., pp. 275–76.

39. Ibid., p. 185.

40. Ibid., p. 361.

41. Ibid., pp. 277–78.

42. Ibid., pp. iii–xxxviii.

43. Thomas R. Berger, “Introduction,” in The Challenge of Child Welfare by Kenneth L. Levitt and Brian Wharf (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1985), p. vii.

44. Johnston, Native Children, p. 109.

45. Carroll P. Hurd and Jeanne M. Hurd, Evaluation: Implementation of the Canada-Manitoba-Brotherhood of Indian Nations Child Welfare Agreement (Edmonton: MacKay-Hurd Associates International, 1986).

46. Peter Hudson and Sharon Taylor-Henley, Agreement and Disagreement: An Evaluation of the Canada-Manitoba Northern Indian Child Welfare Agreement (Winnipeg: School of Social Work, University of Manitoba, 1987).

47. Coopers and Lybrand Consulting Group, An Assessment of Services Delivered under the Canada-Manitoba Northern Indian Child Welfare Agreement” (Winnipeg, 1986).

48. Child and Family Services Act, R.S.M. 1987, c. C80, ss. 1–82.

49. Salasan Associates, “Evaluation of the Project for the Education of Native Teachers,” Brandon, 1986.

50. Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part 1 of Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B of the Canada Act, 1982 (U.K.), c. 11, s. 35(1).

51. Northwest Child and Family Services Agency v. T. (S.J.), [1991] 1 C.N.L.R. 82 (Man. Q.B.)

1. Carol LaPrairie, “The Young Offenders Act and Aboriginal Youth,” in Justice and the Young Offender in Canada, edited by J. Hudson et al. (Toronto: Wall & Thompson, 1988), pp. 159–68.

2. Canadian Research Institute for Law and the Family, Alternative Measures Programs for Native Youth (Alberta, 1990), p. 1.

3. Nicholas Bala, “An Introduction to Child Protection Problems: The History of Child Protection in Canada,” in Canadian Child Welfare Law: Children, Families and the State, edited by Nicholas Bala, Joseph P. Hornick and Robin Vogl (Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing, 1991), pp. 2–3.

4. Ibid.

5. Gordon West, Young Offenders and the State (Toronto: Butterworths, 1988).

6. Juvenile Delinquents Act, R.S.C. 1970, c. J-3, s. 2(1)(h).

7. Ibid., s. 38.

8. For a full discussion of the Juvenile Delinquents Act, see Graham E. Parker, “Some Historical Observations on the Juvenile Court,” Criminal Law Quarterly, 9, 4 (1967): 467–502; Kechin Wang, “The Continuing Turbulence Surrounding the Parens Patriae Concept in Juvenile Courts,” McGill Law Journal 18, 2 (1972): 219–45; Jeffrey S. Leon, “The Development of Canadian Juvenile Justice: A Backgound for Reform,” Osgoode Hall Law Journal, 15, 1 (1977): 71–106; Richard G. Fox and Maureen J. Spencer, “The Young Offenders Bill: Destigmatizing Juvenile Delinquency?” Criminal Law Quarterly, 14 (1972): 172–219; B.A. Grosman, “Young Offenders before the Courts,” Canadian Bar Journal (Nova Scotia), 2, 2 (May 1971): 6–7; P.B. Chapman, “The Lawyer in Juvenile Court: ‘A Gulliver among Lilliputians,’” University of Western Ontario Law Review, 10 (1971): 88–107; and C.H. McNairn, “Juvenile Delinquent Act Characterized as Criminal Law Legislation,” Canadian Bar Review, 46 (1968): 473–82.

9. Omer Archambault, “Young Offenders Act: Philosophy and Principles,” in Crime in Canadian Society, 3d ed., edited by Robert Silverman and James Teevan, pp. 473–82 (Toronto: Butterworths, 1986).

10. Ibid.

11. Canada, Department of Justice, Highlights: The Young Offenders Act (Ottawa, 1988), pp. 2–3.

12. Young Offenders Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. 4-1, s. 24(1)(1).

13. Canada, Statistics Canada, Centre for Justice Statistics, Youth Court Statistics (Ottawa, 1990).

14. C.A. Latimer, “Winnipeg Youth Courts and the Young Offenders Act” (Winnipeg: Research, Planning and Evaluation Branch, Manitoba Department of the Attorney General, 1986).

15. Ibid.

16. Nicholas Bala, “The Young Offenders Act: The Legal Structure,’” in Juvenile Justice in Canada, edited by Ray Corrado et al. (Toronto: Butterworths, forthcoming).

17. Latimer, “Winnipeg Youth Courts.”

18. S. 3(1)(f).

19. Hendrickson, Manitoba Provincial Courts.

20. Latimer, “Winnipeg Youth Courts.”

21. R. v. James, [1990] 6 W.R.R., 152 (S.C.C.).

22. Juvenile Delinquents Act, R.S.C. 1970, c. J-3, s. 2(1)(h).

23. R. Kueneman, Rick Linden and Rick Kosmick, A Study of Manitoba’s Northern and Rural Juvenile Courts (Ottawa: Department of the Solicitor General of Canada, 1986).

24. LaPrairie, “Young Offenders Act,” p. 164.

1. See W.P. Ward, “The Administration of Justice in the North West Territories, 1870–1887,” M.A. thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, 1966; Lorne Brown and Caroline Brown, An Unauthorized History of the RCMP (Toronto: Lewis and Samuel, 1973; reprint ed., James Lorimer, 1978); S.W. Horrall, “Sir John A. Macdonald and the Mounted Police Force for the North West Territories,” Canadian Historical Review, 53, 2 (June 1972): 179–200; E.C. Morgan, “The North West Mounted Police, 1873–1883,” M.A. thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Regina, 1970; W.L. Morton, “Canada and the Canadian Indians: What Went Wrong?” Quarterly of Canadian Studies for the Secondary School, 2, 1 (Spring 1972): 3–12; John Peter Turner, The North West Mounted Police, 1873 to 1893, vol. 2 (Ottawa: King’s Printer, 1950); Hugh A. Dempsey, ed., Men in Scarlet (Calgary: Historical Society of Alberta, McClelland and Stewart West, 1974).

2. Brown and Brown, Unauthorized History of the RCMP, pp. 10, 14; see also Horrall, “Sir John A. Macdonald,” and Morgan, “North West Mounted Police.”

3. See Turner, North West Mounted Police, pp. 518–21.

4. Brown and Brown, Unauthorized History of the RCMP, p. 22.

5. Robert A. Harrison, ed., The New Municipal Manual for Upper Canada (Toronto: Maclear & Co., 1859), p. 158, quoted in Philip C. Stenning, Legal Status of the Police (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1982), p. 10.

6. Alex Nicholas, Black in Blue: A Study of the Negro Policeman (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969).

7. L.J. Callens, “Community Based Policing,” paper delivered in Stonewall, Manitoba, February 1991, p. 5.

8. Angus Reid Group, “Effects of Contact with Police among Aboriginals in Manitoba,” research paper prepared for the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry, Winnipeg, 1989, p. 76.

9. R. v. Anunga and Others (1976), 11 A.L.R. 412 (N.T.S.C.).

10. Australian Law Reform Commission, The Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Laws, Report No. 31, 2 vols. (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1986).

11. Charles Singer and Sharon Moyer, The Dakota-Ojibway Tribal Council Police Program: An Evaluation, 1979–1981 (Ottawa: Department of the Solicitor General of Canada, 1981), p. 34.

12. Social Policy Research Associates/The Evaluation Group Inc., National Evaluation Overview of Indian Policing: Executive Summary and Main Report (Ottawa: Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, 1983).

13. Rick Linden, An Assessment of the Role of the Manitoba Police Commission (Winnipeg: Department of the Attorney General, 1986).

14. Canada, Commission of Inquiry Relating to Public Complaints, Internal Discipline and Grievance Procedure within the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Report (Ottawa: Department of the Solicitor General of Canada, 1976).

15. Canada, Department of the Solicitor General, Police-Challenge 2000: A Vision of the Future of Policing in Canada (Ottawa, 1990), Background Document, p. ix.

16. Ibid., p. 73.

17. Annual Report of the Police Complaints Authority, 1 January 1987–31 December 1987 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1988), p. 5.

18. Ontario, Race Relations and Policing Task Force, The Report of the Race Relations and Policing Task Force (Toronto, 1989), p. 184.

19. Osnaburgh-Windigo Tribal Council Justice Review Committee, Report (Ontario: Attorney General, 1990).

1. Hay Management Consultants, Report-Review of the Recruitment, Selection, and Classification Processes within the Manitoba Civil Service (Winnipeg,1991), p. 47. While the report finds that “native representation is approaching parity with the availability statistics” (p. 15), it is also clear that the report did not examine Aboriginal issues closely. Most particularly, given the under-estimation of Aboriginal persons in the census, and in unemployment figures, we doubt that Aboriginal people are adequately reflected in “availability statistics.”

2. Hay Management Consultants, Report, p. 35.

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